Unit 5: Issues of Mathematics Education

Unit 5 Overview

Browse the course units below.

Introduction

Issues in Mathematics Education

Social

Social issues in Mathematics Education

Cultural

Cultural issues in Mathematics Education

Evaluation

Evaluation issues in Mathematics Education

Ethno-mathematics

Issues in Mathematics Education

Individual Differences

Issues in Mathematics Education

Popularization

Issues in Mathematics Education

Research

Issues in Mathematics Education

Gender Difference

Issues in Mathematics Education

Technology use

Issues in Mathematics Education

Objective Questions

Old Questions

Subjective Questions

Old uestions

Issues of Mathematics Education

The goal of mathematics education is not only to teach mathematics, but to understand the ecosystem in which this teaching and learning occurs. In this chapter, we critically discuss about following issues in mathematics teching and learning, particularly in the context of Nepali classrooms.

1. Social issues and problems in T/L of mathematics education
2. Cultural role in T/L of mathematics education
3. Issues and problems in students' evaluation system
4. Challenges of T/L of mathematics in the 21st century
5. Popularization of mathematics education
6. Gender difference in mathematics education
7. Ethnomathematics
8. Individual difference of students
9. Special needs of students

An issue refers to a challenge, problem, or concern that requires attention or resolution. In the context of mathematics education, various issues impact the teaching and learning process. Issues in Mathematics Teaching brings together a number of key, and sometimes controversial, which will be of concern to all those who are teaching the mathematics, some of these issues are as follows

Social issues and problems in T/L of mathematics

Not all students have equal access to quality mathematics education due to socioeconomic factors, location, or inadequate resources.

Mathematics education is influenced by various social factors that affect student learning and achievement. Differences in language, social class, gender, and ethnicity can create barriers for some students, leading to unequal opportunities in the classroom.
School policies, such as ability grouping and a heavy focus on standardized test scores, may further widen these gaps. To ensure fair and effective learning, it is important to recognize and address these social issues in mathematics education.

Mathematics is often perceived as a neutral and objective subject. However, its teaching and learning are deeply embedded in social structures. For example, it is said that

Mathematics education is not a neutral enterprise. It is a social institution that reflects the values and power structures of the wider society." — Paul Ernest.

In the contex of Nepal: following concerns can be seen.

1. Economic Disparity
   Access to quality mathematics education is heavily influenced by socioeconomic status. A student in a well-resourced private school in Kathmandu has access to trained teachers, technology, and materials that a student in a remote public school in Karnali may not. This creates a "mathematics gap" that may reinforces social stratification.
2. Language Barrier
   As we will discuss in Ethnomathematics, the language of instruction (often English) can be a significant barrier. A student from a Nepali or Maithili-speaking home may struggle with word problems not because of a lack of mathematical understanding, but because of linguistic complexity.
3. Caste and Ethnicity
   Social hierarchies based on caste can also influence classroom dynamics. Students from marginalized communities (Dalits, Janajatis) may face implicit bias or lower expectations from teachers, negatively impacting their mathematical identity.
4. Teachers face time constraints and heavy workload, which limits their ability to be creative in teaching and implement differentiated teaching strategies effectively.
5. Language factors act as a gatekeeper to accessing test content, particularly for English Language Learners, as mathematics instruction can be heavily language-dependent.
6. The issue of mathematics being viewed as a difficult and uninteresting subject often leads to a negative attitude toward it generally.
7. Many students experience math anxiety—a feeling of tension or fear when facing math tasks—which significantly impairs performance and discourages them from pursuing math-related fields.

In your own schooling, what social factors (economic, geographic, linguistic) do you believe most significantly impacted students' success in mathematics?
How can a mathematics teacher create a "socially just" classroom that actively works against these structural inequalities?

Think about your mathematics classroom. Who gets the most help from school rules and resources? Do some students have more power or advantages than others? For example, if you checked exam results by race or other phenomenon, would you notice any unfair patterns? What do those patterns tell you?

Cultural Role in T/L of Mathematics Education

Culture is not separate from mathematics; it is the lens through which mathematical concepts are understood and valued.
Reference: Bishop, A. J. (1988). Mathematical Enculturation: A Cultural Perspective on Mathematics Education. He argues that " mathematics is a cultural product and that education is a process of "enculturation" into specific mathematical practices"-Bishop, A. J. (1988). Mathematical Enculturation.

In the context of Nepal

1. Collectivism vs. Individualism
   Nepali society is largely collectivist. However, traditional math classrooms often emphasize individual performance on exams. Can we incorporate more collaborative problem-solving that aligns with communal values?
2. Religious and Ritual Mathematics
   The intricate geometric patterns (mandalas) in Thangka paintings, the architectural principles (Vastu Shastra) used in temple construction, and the astrological calculations (Jyotish) are all rich in Nepal, culturally embedded mathematical practices. These are rarely good to connect in formal school mathematics.
3. 1. Students from marginalized groups may be discouraged by cultural biases and stereotypes about who should excel in mathematics.

How does the competitive, individualistic nature of examination system conflict with Nepali cultural values of cooperation?

Identify one local cultural artifact or practice from your community that involves sophisticated mathematical thinking. How could it be used in your mathematical lesson plan?

Issues and Problems in Students' Evaluation System

There is a persistent achievement gap among different student groups, including those from low-income backgrounds, minority groups, and students with disabilities.

Evaluation system in Nepal often dictates what is taught and how it is learned. In Nepal, it is largely a summative, high-stakes system.
"When a measure becomes a target, it ceases to be a good measure." — Goodhart's Law.
So, our exams have become the target, distorting the true goal of mathematical proficiency.

In the context of Nepal

1. Rote Memorization
   The SEE (Secondary Education Examination) and university entrance exams often test the ability to recall formulas and apply standard procedures under time pressure. This discourages deep conceptual understanding, problem-solving, and creativity.
2. Limited Modalities
   Evaluation is almost exclusively paper-and-pencil based. There is little to no assessment of oral mathematical reasoning, project-based work, or practical applications.
3. Backwash Effect
   The exam content dictates classroom teaching ("teaching to the test"), leading to a curriculum that is narrow and devoid of the joy of discovery.
4. The concept of culturally fair or responsive assessment is a challenge, as assessment practices might lead to unequal educational opportunities for migrant students.
5. There are fundamental methodological and technical issues in developing valid assessments that capture the full complexity of mathematical competence (such as conjecturing, arguing, and problem-solving).
6. Many teacher-made tests focus on lower-order skills. The pressure from high-stakes standardized testing often leads to "teaching to the test," which compromises the cultivation of critical thinking and deeper learning.
7. Policy challenges include the misinterpretation and misuse of assessment outcomes in policy development.
8. Poor feedback and evaluation system
9. Teacher bias in internal evaluation
10. Causes stress and anxiety
11. Favour theoritical knowlwdge, memory based
12. Limited use modern evaluation tools
13. Project based learning evaluation
14. Inclusion of self and peer evaluation
15. Student centered and practical-evaluation
16. Transparency and fairness
17. Balance in formative and summative evaluation

In the context of your local community, propose three alternative assessment strategies (e.g., portfolios, project work, peer assessment) that could provide a more holistic picture of a student's mathematical ability.

In the context of Nepal, what are the biggest systemic barriers to reforming the mathematics evaluation system in Nepal? and why?

Ethnomathematics

Ethnomathematics,a field of maathematics, pioneered by Ubiratan D'Ambrosio, studies the mathematical practices of distinct cultural groups. It validates non-Western ways of knowing and makes math education more inclusive. For example, this view is explained in a work by D'Ambrosio, U. (1985) through Ethnomathematics and its Place in the History and Pedagogy of Mathematics.

Basic assumption of ethno-mathematics is that culture and social dimensions are not only peripheral but intrinsic to learning mathematics. Cobb (1994) recognizes the debate on whether knowledge is constructed in the head or in the “individual-in-social action.” Some definitions of Ethno-mathematics are given below:

1. Ethno-mathematics is defined as the culture anthropology of mathematics against traditionally culture free mathematics.
2. Hunting defines ethno-mathematics as mathematics used by a defined culture group in preceding the relation with the problem and activities in content.
3. Orey (2007) defines ethno-mathematics as the interaction of cultural anthropology, mathematics, and mathematical modeling.

Sir Isaac Newton made the statement, “If I have seen further than others, it is because I have stood on the shoulder of giants.” In this statement, Sir Isaac Newton gave the essence of mathematics. He placed high respect to the cultural practices that have been transmitted through the generations to him. He said, “It is a body of knowledge accumulated through cultural and historical development, and it is a shared experience”. Societies and countries have been formed and deformed in course of long history.

Most of the countries in the world are multi-cultural, multi-lingual and multi-religious. Mathematics is now considered as social creation. Culture is the contributing factor for the development of mathematics. Mathematics plays a vital role in the development of culture and civilization. So, cultural diversity and the equity of learning opportunities have been considered as one of the major issues in mathematics education.

D'Ambrosio who is also called the father of ethno mathematics has defined the term ethno-mathematics in 1985 as the following way: "Ethno-mathematics as the mathematics practiced among cultural groups such as national tribal societies, labor groups, children of certain age bracket, professional classes and so on". He elaborated that ethno-mathematics is the way different cultural groups mathematise (count, measure, relate, classify, and infer). The prefix ethno describes all of the ingredients that make up the cultural identify of a group (language, codes, values, jargon, beliefs, food and dress, habits, and physical traits). The term mathematics describes a broad view of mathematics which includes ciphering, arithmetic, classifying, ordering, inferring, and modeling.

It is also called the "mathematics in environment" or "mathematics in community". For the promotion if ethno-mathematics one group of mathematicians introduced a logo which is given one the right side.
The term "ethno-mathematics" is used to express the relationship between culture and mathematics. It is a new idea in mathematics of studying mathematical representation from multi-cultural perspectives.

In the context of Nepal,

1. Indigenous Measurement Systems
   The mana, pathi, murhi for volume; haat for length. These systems are based on the human body and are contextually intuitive.
2. Indigenous Games
   Games like Bagh Chal (The Tiger Game) involve sophisticated spatial reasoning, strategy, and logical thinking.
3. Weaving and Craftsmanship
   The Newar community's pottery, the Tharu community's bamboo craft, and the intricate weaving patterns of various ethnic groups all embody complex geometric and symmetric concepts.

Choose one Nepali ethnomathematical example. How would you design a lesson plan that starts with this cultural example and bridges it to a formal mathematical topic in the national curriculum?

What are the potential pitfalls of "tokenistically" including ethnomathematics without genuinely valuing the knowledge systems it represents?

Individual Difference of Students

Students are not a monolith. They have diverse learning styles (visual, auditory, kinesthetic), multiple intelligences (logical-mathematical, spatial, interpersonal, etc.), and varying paces of learning. For example, there is a work by Gardner, H. (1983), whose book "Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences" provides a useful framework for recognizing diverse cognitive strengths.

A common challenge is implementing differentiated instruction due to the diverse abilities of students within a single classroom, especially in inclusive settings (e.g., teaching progressions from concrete to visual to abstract concepts). Teachers face significant difficulties in behavior management for students with special needs, particularly when lacking specialized training and support.

One of the greatest challenges a teacher faces in the complex task of working with and accommodating differences among individual pupils in the classroom. Pupils on a same grade level are alike in many ways. They are about the same grade dresses are like, and have similar interests and behavior patterns generally. However, there are some significant differences.

1. Achievement difference
2. Intellectual Difference
3. Different Family Environment
4. Cultural and Ethnic Background
5. Educational Factors

Slow learner

The slow learner is detached from physical, mental, emotional and social position. They cannot learn in regular class as they are alienated from general growth and development. They need special treatment or cure to them in school. It is necessary to impact them the inclusive education as well as main streaming with other students observing their desires and wishes. The famous scholar Simon Binet has classified the students on the basis of IQ 60 and below is (blocked-head) mentally defective or learns slowly rather than normal students, they are called slow learner. Characteristics of Slow Learners

1. Below Average in Intelligence
2. Poor Adjustment to school
3. Physical Difficulties
4. Psychological and Emotional Problems
5. Poverty level of Homes
6. Handicapped

Gifted /Children/ Fast Learner/Rapid Learner/Genius

The fast learners are known as gifted students or gifted children. They have fast learning capacity than general students and their IQ is also greater than genius students or above 140. they generally score full mark on each examination. We can observe several individual differences between general students and gifted students. As it is a challengeable job, it is taken as issue in teaching-learning process. Characteristics of Rapid Learners

1. Above Average in Intelligence
2. High Achievement in Mathematical Reasoning
3. Well Adjusted to School
4. High Socio-economic Status
5. Task Commitment
6. Creativity
7. Social adjustment

In the context of Nepal

1. Differentiated Instruction
   In a single Grade classroom, we may have a student who can solve algebraic equations with ease and another who struggles with basic arithmetic. A one-size-fits-all lecture fails both.
2. Linking to Strengths
   A student strong in verbal-linguistic intelligence might better understand a geometric proof if it is explained as a logical story. A student with strong bodily-kinesthetic intelligence might need to physically measure the angles and sides.
3. Lack of solid mathematics content knowledge among resource teachers, and lack of understanding of special education syllabi among mainstream teachers, hinders inclusive mathematics teaching.
4. Teacher attitudes and commitment pose a challenge, with difficulty in finding mainstream teachers sincerely dedicated to teaching SEN students, and inadequate collaboration between mainstream and resource teachers.
5. Students with special needs often face social isolation and discrimination from peers, which leads to anxiety and hinders their academic performance.
6. Many educators report feeling underprepared to teach mathematics effectively, especially concerning differentiated instruction and evolving curricula.

How can we practically implement differentiated instruction in a Nepali classroom of 50+ students with limited resources?

Reflect on your own "multiple intelligences." How did your strengths help or hinder your own learning of mathematics?

Also we know that some students are "diffentially able" with Special Needs. So, inclusive education is a right, not a privilege. This includes students with physical, cognitive, and learning disabilities. For example it is said that "mandates inclusive education at all levels" which Nepal has ratified- The UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD).

In the context of Nepal

1. Dyscalculia
   A specific learning disability in mathematics is often unrecognized, with students being labeled as "lazy" or "slow."
2. Visual/Hearing Impairment
   How do we teach geometry to a student who is blind? How do we explain a complex problem to a student who is deaf? We lack resources, trained teachers, and adapted materials.
3. Universal Design for Learning (UDL)
   This framework advocates for creating flexible learning environments from the outset. For example, providing multiple means of representation (using visuals, hands-on models, text), action & expression (allowing students to respond verbally, in writing, or with a model), and engagement.

What is the first, most critical step a school can take to become more inclusive for students with special needs, particularly in mathematics?

Popularization of Mathematics Education

Popularization of Mathematics Educationrefers making mathematics accessible, enjoyable, and relevant to the public, breaking the myth that it is only for a "select few."

In September 1989, the ICMI has an international meeting in Leeds University (England) on the subject the popularization of mathematics. Almost one hundred participants from twenty different countries including mathematics scientific journalists and writers for mathematics for a broad public gathered during a week in order to discuss the main features and problems of the activity called the popularization of mathematics. As NCTM (1989) concludes:
The social injustices of past schooling practices can no longer be tolerated. Mathematics has become a critical filter for employment and full participation in our society. We cannot afford to have the majority of our population mathematically illiterate.

What is Popularization of Mathematics?

We know that mathematics is very important subject for human beings. Mathematics has close interrelationships with human life. Mathematics related to many social subjects, like commerce, economics, population, sociological research. So, mathematics should be so easy that everyone can easily learn it. Talking to the point, Popularization of mathematics can be summarized in the following bullets:

1. Sharing mathematics, its beauty and its power, with a wider public.
2. Trying to change the attitude towards mathematics of many who are in need of such a change.
3. Encouraging people to be more active mathematically.
4. Developing mathematics activity in freedom not by compulsion.

Why Popularization of Mathematics?

Popularization of mathematics is necessary for the following reasons:

1. To pay more attention and support from different sources in administration and policy making.
2. To bridge the gap between mathematical community and ordinary citizen.
3. To increase the social status of mathematics in our civilization.
4. To improve the intellectual and cultural condition of many people.
5. To present the wider context of mathematics.

Different Views on Popularization

The term "Popularization of Mathematics" was used in September 1989 during 7th ICMI and by Cambridge University Press. If is said that "mathematics is the gate and key to all sciences". From the above statements we can say that without mathematics no one can learn anything. That is no one can enter in the mine of knowledge. So, mathematics is very important matter for all human beings.
Mathematics has close interrelationship with human life. Mathematics has its broad field. Mathematics is related with many social subject, like, economic, population, sociology research etc. Since mathematics is so important subject it should be familiar to all and it should be so easy that one can easily learn mathematical knowledge.
Now a day, science and technology has done much development. To do such development sciences and technology ate supported by mathematics that is mathematics has played vital role in the development of science and technology. Without mathematics, science and technology will be handicapped. In other words mathematics is the backbone of science and technology, culture development and civilization. Therefore mathematics is popular all over the world. Although it has played such role, many of the people could not understand its' popularity, importance. To make it popular, many institution, union and commission had played important role, for example: IMU, ICME, ICMI, Unesco etc.

Issues for Popularization of Mathematics

There are some myths and misconception in mathematics: (i) you are not born with mathematics gene, either you get it or you do not (ii) mathematics is for males, females never get mathematics (iii) It is hopeless, and too hard for average people (iv) If the logical side of your brain is not your strength you will never do well in mathematics (v) Mathematics is actual thing, my culture never got it (vi) there is only one way to do mathematics. So, the following are the main issues for Popularization:

1. Language
   Language is the means of communication. There are many languages in the world. So, one can not understand the other language. That is why language has become a main issue in popularization of mathematics.
2. Gender Difference
   Gender difference is the main issue for popularization of mathematics. In the context of Nepal, female are very weak in mathematics than male. The main causes are the amount of time give by the boys and girls, negative psychological impact of guardians and teachers as well as social discrimination or lack of self- confidence. It is sometimes believed that mathematics is a male domain subject which is not justified or authenticated by any conclusive research findings.
3. Exceptional Children as an Issue
   Exceptional children are those children, who are mentally, physically and socially different form average children. It id believed the “mathematics is difficult subject” and “mathematics is a male domain subject” and “mathematics is only for cleaver students” effort for making students understood mathematics by mathematics teachers, sometimes it is said that mathematics teachers himself are villains for making mathematics difficult.
4. Science and Technology
   Science and technology are the main issue for popularization of mathematics. To make mathematics popular, mathematical knowledge and importance should be attainable for grassroots level. On the other hand mathematics should contribute in new science and technology. It is observed that there is vast difference between grassroots level of mathematics and mathematics demanded by science and technology.

Recommendation

In this modern age of science and technology, mathematics is essential, for everybody. It is applied in every other discipline. There is no doubt about popularization of mathematics. 7th ICMI in 1989 and Cambridge university press had focused about popularization of mathematics. In order to make mathematics popular in different cultural groups ethnic groups cultural diversities the following measures to be taken as recommendations:

1. Games and puzzles as a means for popularization of mathematics
2. By Writing Programmed Materials
3. The Popularization of Mathematics by Mass Media
4. By Organizing Mathematical Olympiads
5. Mathematics Education for Exceptional Children
6. Gender Equity in Mathematics Education
7. Family Mathematics Program
8. By Promoting Ethno-mathematics

In the context of Nepal

1. Mathematics Festivals
   Organizing local "math melas" with puzzles, games, and magic tricks can demystify the subject.
2. Media and Public Figures
   Collaborating with popular figures (e.g., comedians, musicians, athletes) to talk about the math in their daily lives.
3. Connecting to Local Issues
   Using mathematics to model and discuss public issues—calculating compound interest on loans, understanding statistics in public health, or analyzing population growth data.

Design an outline for a "Mathematics Awareness Week" campaign for your municipality.

Why is there a pervasive cultural narrative that "math is hard and boring" in Nepal, and how can we, as teacher educators, change this narrative?

Gender Difference in Mathematics Education

Issues related to gender differences and an achievement gap between majority and minority students are frequently visible in mathematics assessments.
Research globally shows that there is no innate cognitive difference in mathematical ability between genders. However, significant performance and participation gaps are created by socio-cultural factors. For example, a research work of meta-analysis found that males and females are far more similar than different on most psychological variables, including mathematics.-Hyde, J. S. (2005). The Gender Similarities Hypothesis.

Gender refers to the socially constructed roles and responsibilities of men and women, in a given cultural or location. These roles are influenced by perceptions and expectation arising from culture, political, environmental, economic, and social and religions factors as well as custom law, class ethnicity and individual or institutional bias gender attitudes.
Gender difference in learning mathematics continued to attract researcher in recent years women's education has very short history in many countries. Subsequently, the question of gender equality in mathematics education is a complex issue. Although boys and girls take the same courses and read the same textbooks in mathematics in schools, there is significant difference in the achievement pattern.

Some International Gender Related Studies

Research shows that gender differences related to ability in mathematics persist in girls’ and boys’ perceptions throughout their schooling. Females reported to do mathematics and expressed feelings of dislike for the subject as they got older (Hyde et al.1990). The differential treatment females and minorities experience in the mathematics classroom may account for their lack of interest in and understanding of, mathematics (Campbell 1995).

1. Gila Hanna: Gila Hanna, Canada, reported on the results of the mathematics achievement of girls and boys in 20 countries, using the data collected by SIMS which show that in the majority of the countries girls are not underprivileged in relation to their achievement in mathematics in grade 8. This changed in grade 12 however, and she compared attitudes in the countries in which sex differences were non-existent to generate interesting hypothesis about the factors responsible for girls' inferior or superior achievement in mathematics.
2. Linn & Hyde (1989) claims that the main gender difference is in the confidence level of the students.
3. Linn & Pulos (1983) reported that the propositional reasoning of male students was more likely to succeed in this test and verbal learning of male students was more likely to succeed in the test.
4. Linn & Hyde (1989) reported that male were better at making conjectures, setting experiments and problem solving but female did better in interpersonal relationship and performing family task such as sewing, typing and cooking.
5. Vetter (1992) reported that there were important gender differences in the home, however, parents had lower expectations for their daughter than they had for their sons in terms of mathematical achievements.
6. Bohilin Carol Fry (1994): He had found the following findings: (i) Girls reported significantly less interest in technical abilities; (ii) High score on the confidence scale were co-related with high special abilities girls lower confidence scores may explain their lower geometry grades; (iii) Girls reported a greater desire for structure that the boys did; (iv) Girl's received higher grades than boys in algebra but lower SAT scores.

In the context of Nepal

1. Stereotype Threat
   The pervasive stereotype that "boys are better at math" can negatively affect girls' performance, a phenomenon known as stereotype threat.
2. Parental and Teacher Expectations
   Families may unconsciously invest more in sons' education or encourage them toward STEM fields, while directing daughters toward other pursuits.
3. Lack of Role Models
   The scarcity of visible female mathematicians, engineers, and data scientists in public discourse reinforces the idea that these are male domains.

What specific strategies can a teacher use in the classroom to ensure they are not reinforcing gender stereotypes about mathematical ability?

Does the gendered household responsibilities and safety concerns about girls impact their long-term engagement with mathematics? How?

Technology

Challenges of T/L of Mathematics in the 21st Century

The curriculum is often guided by a decontextualized notion that focuses on procedural understanding, rather than incorporating multicultural mathematical practices.

The world has changed. The skills needed for the 21st century are different from those needed for the industrial age. For example, the four common skills needed today are "4 Cs": Critical Thinking, Communication, Collaboration, and Creativity, which is discussed in a work "The Partnership for 21st Century Skills (P21) framework".

Many teachers adopt a mechanical approach, overemphasizing procedures, memorization of rules, and formulas rather than engaging students in constructing conceptual understanding.

In the context of Nepal

1. Technology Gap
   While students in urban areas may have access to graphing calculators and math software, many schools lack even basic electricity and internet. This creates a digital divide.
2. Relevance of Curriculum
   Are we teaching students to calculate by hand for hours, or are we teaching them how to use computational thinking to solve complex (given the formula to see), real-world problems like agricultural yield optimization?
3. Information Literacy
   In an age of information (and misinformation), mathematical literacy includes the ability to critically interpret data, graphs, and statistics presented in media.
4. The curriculum in some areas may be outdated and fail to align with current educational needs and technological advancements.
5. Students often question the real-world relevance of the mathematics they learn in school, making it challenging to connect concepts to practical applications.
6. There is a lack of continuous professional development and adequate training focused on modern mathematics pedagogy, ICT skills, and behavior management.
7. Some educators show a lack of willingness and satisfaction to implement new technology or online applications, citing factors like time, cost, limited teaching schedules, and a preference for established methods.
8. A major issue is the lack of ICT literacy, training, and facilities for both students and educators.
9. The integration of technology is complicated by equity issues, as not all students have equal access to devices or reliable internet connectivity.
10. There is a debate regarding the risk of overreliance on calculators or software, which could hinder the development of fundamental mental math and problem-solving skills.

How can we foster creativity and critical thinking in a mathematics curriculum that is currently dominated by procedural fluency?

In a resource-constrained environment, what are the most pragmatic and impactful technologies to integrate into math teaching?

MCQ Question

1. When the term popularization of mathematics was used for the first time?
   1. 1983 AD
   2. 1986 AD
   3. 1989 AD
   4. 1990 AD
2. Which is not an issue for popularization of mathematics?
   1. Teaching/learning strategy
   2. Science and technology
   3. Genius learner
   4. War
3. Which is not an issue for popularization of mathematics?
   1. Genius learner
   2. Science and technology
   3. Teaching/learning strategy
   4. War
4. Which is not an issue for popularization of mathematics?
   1. Gifted child
   2. Exceptional child
   3. Gender differences
   4. Language
5. Which of the following is not an aim of applied research?
   1. Extension of new knowledge
   2. Adaptation of knowledge
   3. Evaluation of knowledge
   4. Advocacy of knowledge
6. Which of the following is not component of research endeavors?
   1. Enquiry
   2. Evidence
   3. Theory
   4. None
7. Which one of the following is not an aim of applied research?
   1. Advocacy of knowledge
   2. Adaptation of knowledge
   3. Evaluation of knowledge
   4. Extension of new knowledge
8. What is the source of knowledge construction in empiricist view?
   1. Through social interaction
   2. Through mental schema
   3. Through sense organ
   4. Through networking
9. Which one of the following is not a type of qualitative research?
   1. Ethnography
   2. Case study
   3. Survey
   4. Narrative inquiry
10. In an intervention based action research process, which of following is usually recommended sequence?
    1. Plan, Act, Observe and Reflect
    2. Observe, Plan, Act, and Reflect
    3. Reflect, Plan, Act, and Observe
    4. Observe, Act, Reflect and Plan
11. Which is not a research component of Mathematics Education?
    1. Enquiry
    2. Evidence
    3. Theory
    4. Practice
12. What is the ontology in Qualitative research?
    1. Reality is single and objective
    2. Reality is undefine
    3. Reality is multiple and subjective
    4. None of the above
13. Which of the following is the most recent approach of carrying out researches in mathematics education?
    1. Cognitive approach
    2. Empirical approach
    3. Social and cultural approach
    4. Psychological approach
14. The research idea of concentrating in the experience of “Gifted practitioners” is connected to:
    1. Empiricist’s view
    2. Teacher’s view
    3. Intuitionist’s view
    4. All of above
15. Areas of research in mathematics education is taken as:
    1. Research on curricula, methods and materials
    2. Research on learning and the learner
    3. Research on teaching and the teacher
    4. All of the above
16. Which of the following view favors the experimental studies?
    1. Intuitionist’s view
    2. Empiricist’s view
    3. Teacher’s view
    4. None of the above
17. Which of the following is the most recent approach of researches in Mathematics Education?
    1. Social and Cultural
    2. Cognitive
    3. Socio-psychological
    4. Empirical
18. What is the assessment pattern (formative and summative) according to school curriculum at basic level?
    1. 30% formative - 70% summative
    2. 25% formative - 75% summative
    3. 50% formative - 50% summative
    4. 40% formative - 60% summative
19. The individual difference in learning is not caused by
    1. Educational achievements
    2. Family environment
    3. Cultural background
    4. Learning habits
20. The IQ level of mentally defective child is
    1. Below 70
    2. Below 80
    3. Below 60
    4. Above 140
21. The individual difference in learning is not caused by
    1. Learning habits
    2. Family environment
    3. Cultural background
    4. Learning achievements
22. The individual difference in learning is not caused by
    1. Learning habits
    2. Family environment
    3. Learning achievements
    4. Cultural background
23. Who coined the word “Ethno-mathematics” at first?
    1. Orey
    2. Ernest
    3. Cobb
    4. Ambrosio
24. Which of the following is a component of Ethno-mathematics?
    1. Cultural anthropology
    2. Mathematical modeling
    3. Institutional mathematics
    4. All of the above
25. Which of the followings is a component of Ethno-mathematics?
    1. Institutional Mathematics
    2. Mathematical modeling
    3. Cultural anthropology
    4. Above all
26. Which one of the following is not the boundary to be dwindled in mathematics education in order to harmonized society?
    1. Between boys and girls
    2. Between social groups
    3. Between slow and gifted students
    4. Between haves and have not

Subjective Question

1. Explain the issues and problems in regard to teachers’ judgment in students’ mathematical works.
2. Explain the issues and problems in regard to Teachers’ Judgment in students’ mathematical tasks.
3. Argue for the 'issues on assessment system' at school level mathematics with example.
4. Critically examine the issues and problems of teaching and assessment in mathematics in the context of Nepal.
5. What do you understand by ‘Individual difference in learning Mathematics’? Write down its causes.
6. Give critical appraisals to address the issues of ethno-mathematics in the context of Nepal. W
7. Why is Ethno-mathematics an issue in mathematics education? State and compare ethno-mathematics with global mathematics.
8. State and briefly explain Ethno-mathematics with example. Discuss the recent trends of qualitative and quantitative research in mathematics education with their major types.
9. What is popularization of mathematics? Write the importance of popularization of math-education with suitable examples.
10. Write down your views on popularization of mathematics education. Illustrate its major issues in the context of Nepal.
11. State the major problems appeared in Popularization of Mathematics Education in the context of Nepal.
12. Give critical appraisal on the issue "Popularization of mathematics education" Discuss about the three traditions of research in mathematics education with suitable examples.
13. State the major problems appeared against Popularization of Mathematics Education in Nepal.
14. Why ‘social context’ is considered as an issue in Mathematics Education? Discuss on it with examples.
15. Why do the social context being an issue in mathematics education? Discuss with example.
16. How do different issues—gender difference, individual difference, and students with special needs—hinder classroom teaching? Elaborate with your idea to make classroom inclusive.
17. What does it mean to say 'Gender difference in Mathematics Education'? State the agendas proposed by UNESCO for gender equality in Mathematics Education.
18. What are the issues and problems of using technology in teaching/learning Mathematics especially in Nepalese schools? Describe them with your observation.
19. What are the issues and problems in use of technology in teaching/learning mathematics in Nepalese schools? Describe them with your own observation.
20. Explain the trends in mathematics education research. Discuss Empiricist, Intuitionist and constructivist views in research of mathematics education with suitable examples.
21. Discuss about the three traditions of research in mathematics education with suitable examples.
22. Describe the three components of research in Mathematics Education with suitable examples. State Intuitionist's view in the research.
23. Compare the Empiricist's and Constructionist's views in the research of mathematics education.
24. Compare Empiricist’s and Constructivist’s views with reference to researches in mathematics education.
25. Explain the areas of research in mathematics education. Compare Empiricist’s and Constructivist’s views with reference to researches in Mathematics Education.
26. What are the major areas of research in Mathematics Education? Describe them briefly.
27. Explain the recent trends in research of mathematics education.
28. Compare the Empiricist’s and Constructivist’s views in the researches of Mathematics Education.
29. Why action research is important in mathematics education? Explain action research cycle with example in brief.
30. Why do academic experts prefer Action Research to improve classroom teaching/learning situation? Illustrate its different stages.
31. Why do academic experts prefer Action Research to improve classroom teaching/learning situation? Illustrate its different stages.
32. What is action research for teachers, and what are the challenges that teachers face when doing action research?
33. How is the importance of Action Research in classroom teaching/learning practices? Illustrate its different stages. State Intuitionist’s view in the research.
34. State the importance of Action Research in classroom teaching/learning practices. Illustrate its different stages.